EDITING
def: The organisation of sequences to construct meaning.
Editing describes the relationship between shots and the process
by which they are combined. It is essential to the creation of
narrative space and to the establishment of narrative time. The
relationship between shots may be
graphic,
rhythmic,
spatial and/or
temporal.
Filmmakers and editors may work with various goals in mind.
Traditionally, commercial cinema prefers the continuity system, or the
creation of a logical, continuous narrative which allows the viewer to
suspend disbelief easily and comfortably. Alternatively, filmmakers may
use editing to solicit our intellectual participation or to call
attention to their work in a reflexive manner.
GRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS
Graphic Match
(Grant Reed)
Graphic matches, or
match cuts, are
useful in relating two otherwise disconnected scenes, or in helping to
establish a relationship between two scenes. By ending one shot with a
frame containing the same compositional elements (shape, color, size,
etc.) as the beginning frame of the next shot, a connection is drawn
between the two shots with a smooth transition.
The first clip below, from Hitchcock’s
Psycho, takes place
just after a woman is brutally stabbed to death while in the shower. As
her blood washes away down the drain with the water, the camera slowly
zooms in on just the drain itself. A graphic match cut is then utilized,
as the center of the drain becomes the iris of the victim’s lifeless
left eye.
The next clip, from Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey, is
generally considered to be one of the most famous match cuts in all of
film. As a primitive primate discovers the destructive powers of his
newfound technology, the femur of a deceased animal, he tosses it high
up into the air. Thousands of years pass in a single moment as a
close-up of the bone cuts to a long shot of a satellite orbiting the
earth, thus showing the vast technological advancements made over the
past millennia.
RHYTHMIC RELATIONSHIPS
Rhythm
(Ben Etkin)
Rhythm editing describes an assembling of
shots and/or sequences according to a rhythmic pattern of some kind,
usually dictated by music. It can be narrative, as in the clip from
Woody Allen’s
Bananas below, or, a music video type collage, as in the second clip from Sofia Coppola’s
Marie Antoinette. In either case, dialogue is suppressed and the musical relationship between shots takes center stage.
In Allen’s
Bananas, the use of a vaudeville-esque tune
recalls Charlie Chaplin and early cinematic comedy. Like Chaplin’s
characters, Fielding Melish’s actions and adventures continually result
in humorous misadventure. In the sequence below, he heroically expels
two thugs from a subway car. The length of the shots is determined by
the quick tempo of the piano recording: as the villains’ abuse of
innocent passengers reaches a climax, the shots become shorter and
shorter. The quick editing builds suspense before the hero
unpredictably rises and throws them off the train.
In the next sequence, from Coppola’s
Marie Antoinette, the only
logic connecting the shots is that provided by Bow Wow Wow’s song, “I
want candy”, and a few graphic matches. The sequence is a hallmark of
Coppola’s style – interweaving period decadence and frivolity with a
contemporary youthful exuberance – which is also distinctively feminine.
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Establishing Shot
(Ben Etkin)
The
Establishing Shot
or sequence serves to situate the audience within a particular
environment or setting and/ or to introduce an important character or
characters. The establishing shot is usually the first or the first few
shots in a sequence, and as such, it must be very efficient in
portraying the context. Typically, establishing shots are Extreme Long
Shots or Long Shots, followed by progressively closer framing.
Quentin Tarantino introduces his film Inglorious Basterds,
with an extreme long shot of the countryside, suggestive of rural
France. It is followed by a medium shot of the dairy farmer, who will
dominate the first scene. One of the man’s daughters is also shown,
first in a medium shot and then in medium close-up, hanging clothes.
Moreover, the sequence establishes the central conflict, with the
arrival of the German motor cars, shown in POV shots from the
perspective of the farmer and his daughter.
Oliver Stone opens his film
W. in the opposite manner. From an
extreme close-up, a combined zoom out and pan reveals George standing
in the middle of an empty ballpark.
The final clip, from the conclusion of the Japanese psychological
thriller, 2LDK (“2-Bedroom Apartment”), is another example of the
establishing shot composed in reverse order. This sequence shows an
incremental expansion of the frame (in multiple shots) to include
elements beyond the dead bodies and eventually the entire city of Tokyo.
Shot/ Reverse Shot
Shot/Reverse Shot is an editing technique
that defined as multiple shots edited together in a way that alternates
characters, typically to show both sides of a conversation situation.
There are multiple ways this can be accomplished, with common examples
being over the shoulder shots, angled shots, left/right alternating
shots, and often a combination of the three.
In the first clip below, from Terry Zwigoff’s
Bad Santa, we
see a standard over the shoulder SRS. This, combined with eye-line
matches between the two main negotiators shows how focused each is on
the other. The over the shoulder technique allows the viewer to see the
facial expressions of each character while listening or speaking. More
importantly, the over the shoulder technique creates a sense of space
between the characters greater than the actual distance between them.
This keeps the frame from being uncomfortably cramped, and also shows
the distance between the characters’ different standpoints.
The second clip is from director John Dahl’s Rounders. There is a bit of
an experimental aspect to the SRSs in the clip. As opposed to the clip
above, the SRS technique is used to distort space in such a way that we
observe less than there actually is. In reality there is an 8 or so foot
table separating the characters: the SRS lessens this to a point where
the scene seems almost intimate. We see the characters alternating left
and right sides, which is a standard ploy of continuity editing. Again,
eye-line matches are used to show how intensely each character is
focusing on the other.
Spatial Continuity: 180 Degree System
Eye-line Match
In an eye-line match, a shot of a character looking at something cuts
to another shot showing exactly what the character sees. Essentially,
the camera temporarily becomes the character’s eyes with this editing
technique. In many cases, when the sequence cuts to the eye-line,
camera movement is used to imply movement of the character’s eyes. For
example, a pan from left to right would imply that the character is
moving his/her eyes or head from left to right. Because the audience
sees exactly what the character sees in an eye-line match, this
technique is used to connect the audience with that character, seeing as
we practically become that character for a moment. Each of the
following sequences is from No Country For Old Men, directed by the Coen
Brothers.
In the first clip, five eye-line matches are shown in a sequence
that’s only a minute long. The first of these contains movement from
left to right, mocking Llewelyn’s motion as he walks up to the dead
body. We then see relatively still eye-line matches as Llewelyn looks
at man’s face, and then at the gun as he picks it up. The next eye-line
match is shown as Llewelyn opens the briefcase of money, which contains
a slight zoom. This zoom is not necessarily used to mimic Llewelyn’s
eye movement, but rather his thought and emotion, as the sight of all
the money understandably “brings him in.” The Coen brothers decided to
use so many eye-line matches in this sequence and in the rest of
Llewelyn’s journey so that the audience would come closer to
experiencing what he was experiencing.
In the second clip, portraying Anton’s unfortunate car ride, we see
multiple eye-line matches once again. The first and last eye-line match
simply follow Anton’s eyes as he looks at the road while driving. We
also see another eye-line match of Anton checking his rear-view mirror;
in this match you can gain an appreciation for how perfect the angle is,
mimicking exactly what the character sees. With these eye-line
matches, we feel almost as if we are driving the car, which makes the
crash all the more disturbing. As illustrated in these two sequences,
and throughout the rest of the movie, the Coen brothers wanted us to
gain perspective on both Llewelyn and Anton. Through this, we gain a
better understanding of the relationship between the hunter and the
hunted, one of the film’s major themes.
Cut-in and Cut-away
This sequence, taken from Tarantino’s
Sukiyaki Western Django (2007) provide an examples of the
cut-in.
Cut-out or away is the reverse, bringing the viewer from a close view
to a more distant one. The sequence opens with an extreme long shot of
the area’s landscape, a high-angled tracking shot (probably via
helicopter) –giving us a wide panoramic view of the area. A cut
suddenly transports the viewer somewhere within the landscape to a
medium shot of character lying on the floor in his room.
TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIPS
Continuity editing: The Match on Action
Match on Action is an editing technique used in
continuity editing that cuts two alternate views of the same action
together at the same moment in the move in order to make it seem
uninterrupted. This allows the same action to be seen from multiple
angles without breaking its continuous nature. It fills out a scene
without jeopardizing the reality of the time frame of the action.
In the first scene above, Peter Jackson uses matches on action to
give the chase a sense of dynamism. The viewer can never assume what is
going to happen next, as the scene is constantly shifting. He uses a
very complex version of match on action, jumping from close ups to far
away helicopter shots and back without a pause. It is almost dizzying,
yet thrilling at the same time. Be sure to keep your eye on the white
horse; this is the character we are following and although hard to see
at times it is present in every part of the clip.
The second scene is from Sylvester Stallone’s Rocky IV. Here we see a
different, simpler style of matches on action. The camera stays at
relatively the same level, with few zooms in or out. The matches on
action are used to keep the fight realistic looking, as well as to keep a
certain character in focus/the center of the screen.
The final sequence gives us a Point-of-View shot from the angle of the
“Genji” warrior (shown in white) to the “Heike” gunman in red as he is
shot to the ground. In this sequence, we also have an example of
continuity as the Heike man first falls to the ground and we cut to him
closer up on the ground in the same position. This Heike warrior is
first shown standing up; though he is very small, you can see him in the
distance. After the Genji warrior takes aim and fires at him, you
notice him drop in the background towards where the Genji warrior has
his gun aimed; the match on action comes as the camera cuts to him
falling down.
Parallel Editing
Parallel editing is a technique used to portray multiple lines of
action, occurring in different places, simultaneously. In most but not
all cases of this technique, these lines of action are occurring at the
same time. These different sequences of events are shown simultaneously
because there is usually some type of connection between them. This
connection is either understood by the audience throughout the sequence,
or will be revealed later on in the movie. The first clip is from
No Country For Old Men directed by the Coen Brothers, and the second is from
Batman: The Dark Knight directed by Christopher Nolan.
In this first clip, we see parallel editing used primarily to add
suspense to the situation. At first, the intervals between showing
Lewelyn and Anton are relatively long, but as they shorten later on in
the sequence, additional suspense is added. Just as we see in the
previous clips from the film, there are many eye-line matches shown for
both of the characters. This combination of parallel editing and
eye-line matches for each line of action allows the viewer to
practically experience both sides of the event first-hand.
The second clip offers a different kind of parallel editing in the use
of sound. The basement of criminals contains only diagetic sound, but
as the sequence cuts to the police raid, the voice of the man on the TV
carries over, becoming non-diagetic sound. This created the effect of
the man practically narrating what we see occurring with the police. In
this way, parallel editing can be used not only to add suspense but
also to narrate a line of action with another line of action.
Alternative transitions
Superimposition
Th following sequence is an example of
superimposition.
Superimposition refers to the process by which frames are overlapped,
either mechanically or digitally, in order to achieve a layered
transition. Japanese cinema sometimes uses traditional “kanji”
calligraphy superimposed over standard film in several ways; the first
of these being to illustrate a famous quotation or religious koan (a
phrase chanted to bring about enlightenment), such as this example in
which Tarantino says the Japanese proverb, “life is all about goodbyes”
(サヨナラだけが人生だ) with the same words superimposed over the screen.
Fade -in
In this sequence from Sukiyaki Western Django, the calligraphic message provides an example of the
fade-in.
The style used in “Sukiyaki Western Django” is reminiscent of
filmmakers such as Kurosawa, who used this archaic writing technique to
embed a sort of traditionalism into his media. All in all, this effect
has the added value of reminding us that though we are watching a
Western, there is a Japanese component that underlies all the events of
the film, and we cannot forget this in sight of the lush mise en scène
that encompasses the entirety of the piece.
ALTERNATIVES TO THE CONTINUITY SYSTEM
Long Take
(Grant Reed)
Long takes are simply shots that extend for a long
period of time before cutting to the next shot. Generally, any take
greater than a minute in length is considered a long take. Usually done
with a moving camera, long takes are often used to build suspense or
capture the attention of audience of without breaking their
concentration by cutting the film.
The opening scene from Robert Zemeckis’ Forrest Gump follows a
feather blowing carefree in the wind, eventually landing on the foot of
the protagonist who proceeds to pick it up and place it in his suitcase.
This scene acts as a metaphor for the whole movie, as the feather
represents Forrest. Just as the feather blows around for what seems like
forever, just going where the wind takes it until it eventually lands
in a safe place, Forrest seems to just blow aimlessly through life,
going wherever life and fate may take him with out too much
consideration of his own, until he eventually lands in a happy place.
The next long take is from Frank Darabont’s
The Shawshank Redemption. A
white bus is seen driving up the street towards a long building. As the
bus turns to drive around the building the camera goes straight over
the top of the building to reveal the vast expanses of Shawshank Prison.
Hundreds of prisoners in the yard are all seen walking in the same
direction, seemingly toward the same place. As the camera makes it to
the end of the prison yard the bus returns to the frame, meeting a group
of guards at the same spot all of the prisoners had been heading
towards.
This long take sequence, from Scorsese’s
Mean Streets, shows
Charlie (Harvey Keitel) in a state of barely coherent drunkenness. The
sequence was accomplished by attaching a Steadicam to the actor’s body
in such a way as to continually frame his face in close-up in spite of
his uncertain movements. The position of the camera serves to capture
the disorientation and estrangement of the character as he stumbles
around the crowded bar. The red color of the image, together with the
absurd musical accompaniment, helps to render the atmosphere of a seedy
night club.
Jump-Cut
(Nelson)
A Jump-Cut is an example of the elliptical style of editing where one
shot seems to be abruptly interrupted. Typically the background will
change while the individuals stay the same, or vice versa. Jump-cuts
stray from the more contemporary style of continuity editing where the
plot flows seamlessly to a more ambiguous story line. An example of
this editing style can be found in the following clips from Capote
(2005).
Hollywood-style Montage
(Nelson)
Montage also describes the approach used in commercial cinema to piece
together fragments of different yet related images, sounds/music, often
in the style of a music video. The following sequence, from Pretty
Woman (1991), is an example of the
hollywood style montage.
The film, starring Richard Gere and Julia Roberts, shows the main
character Vivienne as she transitions from a scantily-clad, unrefined
hooker, into Edward’s elegant, poised and well-dressed companion. The
soundtrack plays over the background as snippets of various clothing and
body parts are shown. In the concluding frame of sequence, the final
product, the “new Vivienne”, approaches the camera in a white, tailored
outfit and a ladylike hat.
As Louis Giannetti says in
